Although learning is usually seen as determined
by teachers and students, learning may be strongly affected by
organizational context. Policymakers’ neglect of powerful
influences outside the classroom may explain why many classroom
reforms have been ineffective, and why analysts are caught in
the trap of blaming two actors — students or teachers —
while failing to notice larger outside influences. This paper
suggests various organizational influences that may affect learning,
identifies relevant studies, and proposes a general framework
for a social science research agenda on these issues.
The paper considers four levels of organizational failures that
may potentially affect learning — (1) within schools (classroom
atomism), (2) between schools and other schools over time and
space (organizational gaps), (3) between schools and surrounding
institutions (contextual conflicts), and (4) between schools and
later institutions (incentive failures). Since American schools
are particularly ineffective in educating disadvantaged students,
this paper focuses particularly on the harmful effects on children
from disadvantaged families. It suggests conceptual approaches
and research questions that are fundamental to understanding educational
outcomes and to improving the effectiveness of school reforms,
which educators themselves sometimes derisively term “Christmas
ornaments.” If this model is correct, policy can have a constructive
impact, but not if it is done in the customary reforms that increase
fragmentation. Research on these issues can improve understanding
of organizational influences on learning and reduce organizational
barriers to disadvantaged students.
James E. Rosenbaum, School
of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University
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